The importance of green areas in today's modern city concept is increasing day by day. In this understanding, the use of turfgrass [e.g. Bentgrass (Agrostis spp. L.); Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.); Common Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Poales: Poaceae)] in sports fields is getting important. Golf courses mainly occurs turfgrass and not much nematological studies has been done in courses of T & uuml;rkiye. In this study, total of 51 soil and 3 water samples were taken from golf courses in Antalya, T & uuml;rkiye's largest golf tourism destination, in 2021. Within the scope of this study, plant parasitic nematode (PPN) species belonging to the genera Aphelenchoides Fischer, 1894 (Tylenchida: Aphelenchoididae), Aphelenchus Bastian, 1865 (Tylenchida: Aphelenchoididae), Criconemella (De Grisse & Loof, 1965) (Tylenchida: Criconematidae), Ditylenchus Filipjev, 1936 (Tylenchida: Anguinidae), Helicotylenchus Steiner, 1945 (Tylenchida: Hoplolaimidae), Hemicriconemoides Chitwood & Birchfield, 1957 (Tylenchida: Criconematidae), Hemicycliophora de Man, 1921 (Tylenchida: Hemicycliophoridae), Hoplolaimus von Daday, 1905 (Tylenchida: Hoplolaimidae), Longidorus Micoletzky, 1922 (Dorylaimida: Longidoridae), Paratrichodorus Siddiqi, 1974 (Triplonchida: Trichodoridae) and Tylenchus Bastian, 1865 (Tylenchida: Tylenchidae) were identified using morphological and morphometric methods. The most detected species in the samples was Hemicycliophora punensis Darekar & Khan, 1980 (Rhabditida: Hemicycliophoridae) (22.22%), while the least detected PPN species was Helicotylenchus dihystera (Cobb, 1893) Sher, 1961 (Tylenchida: Hoplolaimidae) (3.70%). In this study, it is important there are virus vector species among the identified plant parasitic nematode genera. These nematode species can play an active role in the spread of various viral diseases in turfgrass areas. In turfgrass areas where very sensitive cultivation is carried out, such as golf courses, PPN's cause direct damages by feeding, which serve as the source of entry of pathogens into the plants. This situation increases the prevalence and severity of the disease in infected fields. Therefore, early detection of the presence of PPN's in cultivation areas is important to determine effective control strategies.

The adoption of protected cultivation techniques has significantly enhanced vegetable productivity in India, by offering numerous advantages such as extended growing seasons, increased yield and better control over environmental conditions. Growing crops under protected cultivation has multifaceted benefits; however, the adoption of sequential cropping pattern in these closed structures has led to the prevalence of soil borne pathogens, nematodes and pest incidence, which became a major hindrance to the sustainable agriculture. Continuous cultivation of crops without adequate rotation or sanitation measures in the same soil creates a conducive environment for pest and disease proliferation. Prevalence of nematode infestation is particularly concerning as they pose a serious threat to the yield and quality of agriculture production. Nematodes, such as root-knot nematodes and reniform nematodes, can survive in the congenial conditions of higher temperatures and humidity present in the protected cultivation structures. Nematode infestations can cause significant damage to the root systems of plants, leading to reduced water and nutrient uptake, stunted growth and lower yields and symptoms like chlorosis, wilting and stunting will appear after the significant damage. This review discusses the key nematode species affecting crops under protected cultivation, their impact on crop health and productivity, their ecological interactions and various integrated management strategies. Integrated management strategies, including biological, chemical and cultural practices, are essential for mitigating the menace caused by the plant parasitic nematodes. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and soil solarisation, chemical treatments with nematicides, Biological control using biocontrol agents and natural predators, are all part of a comprehensive strategy to manage nematode populations effectively and sustain the productivity of protected cultivation systems.

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) cause significant damage to crop production worldwide, leading to substantial economic losses. Conventional chemical nematicides are effective but frequently associated with environmental and health hazards. In response, biological control methods, particularly the use of microbial pesticides, have emerged as a sustainable and effective alternative. This study focuses on the isolation and characterization of Bacillus sp. HSY32, a bacterial strain with nematicidal properties, from a tropical rainforest soil sample in Hainan, China. Soil samples were screened for nematicidal activity, which led to the identification of the strain HSY32. Detailed observations using optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that HSY32 forms spores and parasporal crystal structures, which are typically associated with nematicidal Bacillus species. Genomic analysis of HSY32 showed that its genome spans 6,711,949 base pairs and contains 7915 predicted genes, with an average GC content of 35.4%. Phylogenetic analysis, utilizing 16S rRNA sequences and average nucleotide identity (ANI), established that HSY32 is closely related to Bacillus mobilis, a known species within the Bacillus genus. Further genomic analysis using local BLAST identified several toxin genes with high similarity to known nematicidal genes, including cry4Ba, cry50Ba, app6Ba, cry70Bb, and tpp36Aa. To confirm the functionality of these toxin genes, they were cloned into pET-30a expression vectors and expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) cells. Among the expressed proteins, the Cry4Ba-like protein, with a molecular weight of approximately 110 kDa, was found to exhibit significant nematicidal activity in bioassays. This protein demonstrated the ability to kill or inhibit the growth of PPNs, indicating its potential as a biological control agent. The successful isolation of Bacillus strain HSY32 and the identification of its novel Cry4-like toxin gene represent a significant advancement in the field of biological control of plant parasitic nematodes. The nematicidal activity of the Cry4Ba-like protein highlights the potential of HSY32 as a source of new biopesticides. Further studies are required to enhance the production and application of these biocontrol agents in agriculture, paving the way for more sustainable and eco-friendly methods to control PPNs.

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are microscopic organisms that inhabit soil and plant tissues causing a significant challenge for farmers around the globe leading to substantial crop damage and losses. Major concern on the indiscriminate use of chemical nematicides has led to exploitation of safe alternatives to mitigate these losses. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. and their associated symbiotic bacteria, Xenorhabdus spp. and Photorhabdus spp. have gained attention as eco-friendly biocontrol agents against insect pests and nematodes. They have the ability to kill the insects by causing septicaemia disease in host insect by production of toxins. EPNs are soil inhabiting, free-living nematodes that also combat PPNs. The secondary metabolites produced by these bacteria exhibits antimicrobial, antifungal, nematicidal, insecticidal, and even anticancer properties. This current review explores the potential of EPNs and their symbiotic bacteria as nematode management strategies by targeting different stages of PPNs resulting in decreased egg production and nematode population. The EPNs and their associated bacteria suppress PPNs by three different ways viz., repulsion, competition and antagonism. Overall, EPNs and their symbiotic bacteria offer sustainable and effective alternatives to chemical pesticides, since application of hazardous chemical pesticides are harmful to environment and human health. This review gives an overview and idea for further research and development of EPN's and their symbiotic bacteria as commercial bioproducts towards PPNs control.

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) and fungi cause biotic stress and are responsible for considerable yield losses to different crops. PPN and fungi are very abundant microorganisms in soil and both interact with each other in multiple ways. PPN besides causing direct damage to plants, also possess capability to interact with fungi resulting into disease complexes. The PPN invasion in plant parts especially in root may enhance severity of fungal diseases in many instances. This review critically analyses the information on the combined nematode-fungus stress and economic losses caused by them. Combined PPN and fungal stress has been discussed which results into synergistic and additive interactions. Similarly, role of wounds created by nematode feeding, physiological changes in the host, modification in rhizosphere, breaking of host resistance and changes in the host plant due to combined interaction of PPN-fungus has been described. Role of PPN and fungus in antagonistic interaction has also been analysed. Role of microbial communities in the rhizosphere in influencing nematode-fungus interaction has also been discussed. Management of disease complexes using mixture of biocontrol agents and use of nanoparticles in integrated management has been suggested. Conclusion and future prospects have been discussed.

The identification of phytoparasitic nematodes, which is essential for the implementation of management strategies is required. The objective of this work was to identify, at the genus level, the phytoparasites and free-living nematodes associated with the cultivation of sweet granadilla ( Passiflora ligularis Juss.) in the valley of Sandia, region Puno, Peru. For the study, 165 soil samples were evaluated, coming from eight communities from the district of Sandia, during the agricultural season 2018-2019. The samples were processed by the method of centrifugal flotation in sucrose solution, and later identified on the basis of morphological characteristics. The results showed the presence of seven genera of phytoparasitic nematodes: Meloidogyne , Pratylenchus , Helicotylenchus , Mesocriconema , Xiphinema , Tylenchus, and Hemicycliophora , and two genera of free-living nematodes, Aphelenchus and Dorylaimus. The most harmful genera were Meloidogyne and Pratylenchus because they cause damage to other crops. In the nematode community, there was variability in the density and frequency of phytoparasitic and freeliving individuals in the evaluated localities.