In continuously cropped strawberry soil, a large population of the fungivorous nematode, Aphelenchus avenae, was observed to increase significantly over time. This nematode, which feeds on pathogenic fungi affecting strawberries, has significant potential as a biocontrol agent. The purpose of this article is to discuss the nematode's preference for fungi associated with strawberries and its impact on the growth of strawberry roots. With the exception of Trichoderma harzianum, most of the pathogenic fungi commonly found in strawberry soil, such as Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Verticillium, Phytophthora infestans, and Botrytis cinerea Pers. attracted A. avenae and supported their propagation. All treatments with A. avenae and the non-nematode control showed a consistent trend throughout strawberry development, indicating that a moderate amount of A. avenae does not adversely affect strawberry roots. Moderate and low levels of A. avenae significantly increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and peroxidase (POD) in strawberry roots in all treatments during the entire growth stages. Also, the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of strawberry roots in all nematode treatments was lower than that in the no-nematode control. Despite an overabundance of A. avenae, which negatively affected the redox system balance of strawberry roots, A. avenae can protect the roots from pathogenic fungi by preventing infection and damage. These results lay the foundation for the potential use of A. avenae as a biological agent to control these pathogenic fungi in strawberry soil, in combination with the biological fungi (T. harzianum).
This review examines natural pests, competitors of the Heracleum sosnowsky. Special attention is paid to the role of mutualism in the invasiveness of hogweed. the parsnip yellow spot virus, larvae of the weevil ( Lixus iridis (Olivier, 1807)), agromyzid flies ( Phytomyza pastinacae (Hendel, 1923)), umbrella moth ( Epermenia chaerophyllella (Goeze, 1783)), scoops ( Dasypolia temple (Thunberg, 1792)), depressariids ( Depressaria radiella (Goeze, 1783)), celery fly ( Euleia heraclei (Linnaeus, 1758)), lamellate beetles ( Oxythyrea funesta (Poda, 1761)), caterpillars of the Kamchatka Swallowtail ( Papiliomachaon (Linnaeus, 1758)) significantly damaged Heracleum sosnowsky. Thrips vulgatissimus (Haliday, 1836) feeds on the sap, while Lixus iridis eat leaves and stems of the above mentioned hogweed. Phoma complanate (Tode) (= Calophoma complanate) is a phytopathogenic fungi that damage Heracleum sosnowsky. Powdery mildew, ascochitosis and cylindrosporosis are most common fungal diseases of the giant hogweed. Shellfish farming and livestock grazing curb the spread of hogweed. Due to the lack of competition in the environment, the importance of its artificial creation is discussed. The fast-growing perennial grasses create dense turf that prevents germinating of hogweed seeds. Poapratensis L., Alopecuruspratensis L., Bromus inermis Leyss., Festuca rubra L., Phlumpratense L., Loliumperenne L., Helianthus tuberosus L., and Galega orientalis Lam. are among them. Replacement crops, such as Picea abies (L.) Karst. and Pinus sylvestris L., can compete in vacant lots and abandoned lands. The success of the hogweed populations introduction depends on the presence of pollinators, the spread of its seeds by animals and humans; symbiosis with fungi and bacteria. The possibility of limiting the spread of hogweed through the absence of species that improve its adaptability is discussed. It was concluded that biological control agents are promising to use and additional studies is needed to reduce the number of Heracleum sosnowsky and eliminate negative consequences for the environment.