Wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) is a widespread megaherbivore that can intensively disturb large areas of its habitat both in its native and non-native ranges, when populations reach high densities. The main problem is its rooting habit, which entails intensive disturbance of the topsoil and herbaceous layer. The extent of concomitant habitat degradation varies across ecoregions; some ecosystems are rather resilient, although the damages are long-lasting in others. In mown meadows, a secondary problem is the inability to resume mowing due to the uneven soil surface of rooted patches. This can lead to both economic loss and a loss of management-dependent biodiversity. We assessed the short-term effects of rooting on vegetation cover and composition in central European permanent hay meadows and tested the utility of manual soil surface resmoothing to enable the continuation of mowing. We found that rooting increased bare soil surface but vegetation recovery occurred within a year. Similarly, high resilience was found for species composition. We could not detect any difference between rooted and intact grassland patches after 1 yr. This short-term perturbation of the composition could be associated with a temporary decrease in grassland specialist species and an increase in ruderal and pioneer species. Soil surface resmoothing was an additional disturbance, but vegetation cover returned to the level of intact grasslands within a year. Vegetation composition needed a slightly longer time (2 yr) to recover than that without resmoothing. We thus recommend the application of manual resmoothing in hay meadows with high short-term resilience to rooting, but a risk of long-term degradation (e.g., shrub encroachment) if mowing is not resumed. In hay meadows with lower resilience (because of, e.g., steep slopes), resmoothing should be applied with caution and may be supplemented with seeding to support the recovery of the vegetation and prevent soil erosion. (c) 2025 The Society for Range Management. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights are reserved, including

Key message We test the potential benefits of planting 2-year vs. 1-year-old seedlings to restore Mediterranean oak-dominated systems. Planting 2-year-old Quercus suber L. seedlings is recommended for improved survival and resilience against wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) and drought in dry sandy soils. The removal of acorns in seedlings did not apparently influence leaf biochemical traits and could reduce wild boar damage, particularly in 1-year-old seedlings. Context In the face of anthropogenic global change, Mediterranean oak-dominated ecosystems confront increased biotic (ungulate herbivory) and abiotic (drought) stressors, compromising forest regeneration. Restoration measures are imperative to address this scenario. Aims This study assesses the impact of different mitigation measures on the survival and biochemical traits of two oak species. Methods We planted Quercus ilex L. and Q. suber L. seedlings in Caba & ntilde;eros and Do & ntilde;ana National Parks (Spain), subjecting them to three treatments: cotyledon/acorn removal, seedling age (1- vs. 2-year-old), and herbivore protection (fenced vs. non-fenced). Results Wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) damage peaked in winter and early spring, while drought prevailed from late spring to fall. In sandy soils, wild boar uprooted 1-year-old more often than 2-years-old seedlings (40% vs. 18%). One-year-old seedlings without acorns showed higher survival rates against wild boar only in sandy soils. The removal of acorns in seedlings did not influence plant biochemical traits. Conclusions Planting 2-year-old seedlings in sandy soils may mitigate wild boar damage and improve drought resilience. Seedling age seems more important than acorn removal against biotic and abiotic stressors although acorn removal could reduce wild boar damage in 1-year-old seedlings. Our results underscore the importance of considering multiple stressors in oak restoration strategies.