There is a huge reservation of loess in the Shanxi mining area in China, which has great potential for preparing supplementary cementitious materials. Loess was modified via mechanical and thermal activation, and the pozzolanic activity was evaluated using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES). Moreover, the workability of grouting materials prepared using modified loess was assessed. The experimental results revealed that the number of ultrafine particles gradually increased with the grinding time, enhancing the grouting performance. The coordination number of Al decreased upon the breakage of the Al-O-Si bond post-calcination at 400 degrees C, 550 degrees C, 700 degrees C, and 850 degrees C. Moreover, the breaking of the Si-O covalent bond produced Si-phases, and the pozzolanic activity of loess increased. Furthermore, the modified loess was hydrated with different cement proportions. With increasing grinding time, the overall setting time increased until the longest time of 14.5 h and the fluidity of the slurry decreased until the lowest fluidity of 9.7 cm. However, the fluidity and setting time decreased with increasing calcination temperature. The lowest values were 12.03 cm and 10.05 h. With the increase in pozzolanic activity, more ettringite was produced via hydration, which enhanced the mechanical properties. The maximum strength of the hydrated loess after grinding for 20 min reached 16.5 MPa. The strength of the hydrated loess calcined at 850 degrees C reached 21 MPa. These experimental findings provide theoretical support for the practical application of loess in grouting.

The production of ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals generates slag as a byproduct material. Ferrous slags are extensively used in the construction sector as supplementary cementitious material (SCM) and aggregates. In this regard, the investigation of potential applications in similar areas for slags derived from the production of non-ferrous metals can help to address issues associated with their disposal, dumping, environmental concerns, etc. The primary aim of this research is to assess the pozzolanic activity of copper slag (CS), a type of non-ferrous slag. This investigation is conducted to replace a portion of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) incorporating CS as an SCM for sustainable construction. To assess the reactivity of the CS, comparisons were drawn with a known pozzolanic material fly ash (FA), and an inert material quartz powder (QP). The processing of raw CS (granular material) was carried out using a laboratory scale ball mill to achieve varying fineness to evaluate the effect of specific surface area (SSA) on reactivity. Initially, the investigations were conducted on paste samples of OPC-CS and suspensions of CScalcium hydroxide (CH) and were later extended to mortar studies. Mechanical characteristics such as compressive strength and open porosity of mortar specimens were determined to correlate with the paste studies results. The findings suggest that CS does exhibit pozzolanic characteristics although its reactivity is comparatively lower than that of FA. An increase in the fineness of the CS resulted in enhanced pozzolanic activity. Analysis of the hydrated suspension samples showed the formation of Fe-siliceous hydrogarnet phase indicating Fe from CS was involved in the reaction with CH. Although OPC-CS mortar samples exhibited similar open porosity compared to OPC-QP mortar samples, the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) porosity in mortar samples of OPC-CS was observed to be reduced indicating the densification of the region due to the pozzolanic reaction of CS. The permissible replacement of OPC with CS as a substitute for FA can be adjusted according to the material's fineness and the desired compressive strength.

Loess, a terrestrial clastic sediment, is formed essentially by the accumulation of wind-blown dust, while stone waste (SW) is an industrial waste produced during stone machining. Utilising loess and SW to prepare environmentally-friendly supplementary cementitious materials can not only address environmental issues caused by solid waste landfills but also meet the demand of reinforcement of coal-seam floor aquifer for grouting materials. In this paper, the effects of the loess/SW mass ratio and calcination temperature on the transformation of calcined products are investigated and their pozzolanic activities are evaluated. The workability, environmental impact and cost of grouting materials based on cement and calcined products are also assessed. Experimental results reveal that higher temperatures favour the formation of free lime and periclase, which tend to be involved in solid-state reactions. Higher temperature and loess/SW mass ratio strengthens the diffraction peaks of dodecalcium hepta-aluminate (C12A7), dicalcium ferrite (C2F) and dicalcium silicate (C2S). The clay minerals in loess become completely dehydroxylated before 825 degrees C, generating amorphous SiO2 and Al2O3. Covalent Si-O bonds are interrupted and that disordered silicate networks are generated in the calcined products, which is confirmed by the increased strength of the Si29 resonance region at -60 ppm to -80 ppm. Although co-calcined loess and SW contain the most four-fold aluminium at 950 degrees C, recrystallisation depresses the pozzolanic activity. Hence, the loess/SW sample designated LS2-825 exhibits the better hydration activity. Additionally, grouting materials composed of cement and LS2-825 exhibit good setting times, fluidity, strength and a low carbon footprint in practical engineering applications, and they also provide the additional benefit of being cost effective.