Phthalates are the emerging environmental toxicants derived from phthalic acid and its constituents, which are moderately present in plastics and many personal care products. Phthalate exposure occurs through various environmental factors, including air, water, and soil, with absorption facilitated via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Upon exposure, phthalates become bioavailable within the biological systems and undergo biotransformation and detoxification processes in the liver. The physicochemical properties of phthalates indicate their lipophilicity, environmental persistence, and bioaccumulation potential, influencing their absorption, distribution, and hepatic biotransformation. The prolonged exposure to phthalates adversely influences the biological redox system by altering the levels of the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, molecular signaling pathways, and causing hepatic pathogenesis. The strategies to combat phthalate-induced toxicity include avoiding exposure to these compounds and using plant-based bioactive molecules such as polyphenols, which possess therapeutic potential as antioxidants, suppress inflammatory cascades, prevent oxidative damage, and stabilize cellular integrity. This review presents a comprehensive and updated account of the chemical, biochemical, immunological, and toxicological properties of phthalates, along with novel plant-based therapeutic strategies to mitigate the phthalate-induced adverse effects on living systems.

Environmental pollutants act as stressors for plants, inducing different stresses like physiological changes, variation in nutritional value, biochemical stress and photosynthetic blockage, and food loss. Phthalate esters are one of the environmental pollutants most commonly used as plasticizers in packaging materials. They leach out into the soil and accumulate in plants via root take-up. The present research work was carried out to check the phytotoxic effect of dibutyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, and di-n-octyl phthalate, their exposure to Malondialdehyde contents, and the consequent impact on the total phenolic content of edible parts of plants. The edible plants tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), radish (Raphanus sativus), turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. rapa), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis), and carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) were exposed to 0, 10, and 20pbb of all four phthalate esters. After 10 days of exposure, TPC and MDA contents were analyzed spectrophotometrically. The exposure of phthalate esters significantly increased TPC in leaves, and MDA in the root and leaves of plants, except that of DnOP which decreased MDA content in radish leaves.

Reclaimed water irrigation has emerged as a critical alternative in agricultural regions facing water scarcity. However, soil pollution with microplastics (MPs) greatly increases the exposure risk and toxic effects of reclaimed water contaminations, such as phthalate esters (PAEs). A field experiment consisting of soil column pots evaluated the feasibility of using PAEs-contaminated water to irrigate oats (Avena sativa L.) in drought seasons. Three irrigation regimens based on soil matric potential thresholds (-10 kPa, -30 kPa, -50 kPa) explored the impact of PAE-contaminated water on oat physiology and environmental pollution in soil with and without MPs contamination. The results showed that treating oats at the SMP of -30 kPa boosted shoot biomass by 3.1%-14.0% compared to the drought condition at -50 kPa, and the root biomass of oats was significantly increased. The physiological metrics of oats indicated that irrigation at -50 kPa induced drought stress and oxidative damage in oats, particularly during the milk stage. Different irrigation treatments influenced the accumulation of PAEs in plants, soil, and leachate. The ratios of leachate to irrigation water in -10 kPa treatment with and without MPs addition were 1.18% and 4.48%, respectively, which aggravated the accumulation of pollutants in deep soil layers and may cause groundwater pollution. MPs pollution in soil increased the content of PAEs in the harvested oats and reduced the transport and accumulation of PAEs in deep soil layers (20-50 cm) and leachate. The coupling of PAEs in irrigation water with soil MPs pollution may exacerbate plant damage. However, the damage can be minimized under the scheduled irrigation at -30 kPa which could balance crop yield and potential risks.