We present a high-resolution geologic map of the Rubin crater region, located on Mons Amundsen, which has been identified as a promising site for future lunar exploration (AOI E in Wueller et al., 2024). We developed a design reference mission (DRM) to highlight the region's potential for addressing key lunar science goals, particularly those related to the early lunar bombardment history, lunar crustal rocks, volatiles, impact processes at multiple scales, and regolith properties, as outlined by the National Research Council (2007). The Rubin crater, which formed about 1.58 billion years ago during the Eratosthenian period, excavated material from depths of up to 320 m, potentially reaching the underlying South Pole-Aitken (SPA) massif, Mons Amundsen. This makes the crater's ejecta material, along with the Amundsen ejecta covering the massif, prime targets for sampling SPA-derived materials that can expand our understanding of early Solar System dynamics and the lunar cratering chronology. Additionally, the region hosts several permanently shadowed regions (PSRs), ideal for studying potential lunar volatiles and the processes affecting their distribution. The DRM proposes nine traverse options for exploration via walking EVAs, the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), and LRV-assisted EVAs, with traverse lengths ranging from 3.6 km to 18.2 km. Each traverse is designed to sample diverse geologic units and address multiple scientific objectives. Given its scientific potential and favorable exploration conditions, the Rubin crater region is an ideal location for testing south polar landing operations, potentially paving the way for more complex missions, such as a Shackleton crater landing. (c) 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of COSPAR. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Observations of widespread hydration across the lunar surface could be attributed to water formed via the implantation of solar wind hydrogen ions into minerals at the surface. Solar wind irradiation produces a defectrich outer rim in lunar regolith grains which can trap implanted hydrogen to form and store water. However, the ability of hydrogen and water to be retained in space weathered regolith at the lunar surface is not wellunderstood. Here, we present results of novel and coordinated high-resolution analyses using transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography to measure hydrogen and water within space weathered lunar grains. We find that hydrogen and water are present in the solar wind-damaged rims of lunar grains and that these species are stored in higher concentrations in the vesicles that are formed by solar wind irradiation. These vesicles may serve as reservoirs that store water over diurnal and possibly geologic timescales. Solar windderived water trapped in space weathered rims is likely a major contributor to observations of the widespread presence, variability, and behavior of the water across the lunar surface.

Volcanic products returned from the Apollo missions over 50 years ago provide a unique perspective into the magmatic evolution of the Moon. However, questions remain regarding the volatile loss, crystallization, and emplacement histories of lunar lavas. To address gaps in our understanding of the eruptive histories of lunar lavas, we investigate phase chemistry and 3D morphologies of low-titanium Apollo 15 basalts belonging to the olivine-normative and quartz-normative suites. We report the 2D and 3D petrography, mineral chemistry, and 3D void space morphologies of 15499, 15555, 15556, and the lesser studied 15495 and 15608 basalts. Quantitative apatite chemistry shows a wide range of apatite volatile compositions and that low-Ti basalt 15495 may contain the most OH-rich compositions measured from the Moon. Analyses of metal grains within the low-Ti basalts have expanded the field of expected Ni and Co metal concentrations for Apollo 15 mare basalts and are used to determine the petrogenesis of two of the studied samples. Coupling 2D chemistry with nondestructive 3D morphologic analyses provides critical insights on the relative timing of volatile exsolution in low-titanium lavas. Through the analysis of vesicles and vugs from X-ray computed tomographic data, we report the first 3D void space volume percentages for a suite of low-Ti basalts and show that these basalts degassed before the onset of mesostasis (e.g., apatite) crystallization. We use calculated cooling rates and 3D morphologic analyses to show that the studied basalts crystallized at various depths in separate lava flows, and 15608 represents the quenched margin of a mare flow. Our work highlights the value of combining 2D and 3D analytical techniques to study the emplacement history of basalts that lack geological context.

Numerous missions to the Moon have identified and documented volatile deposits associated with permanently shadowed regions. A series of science goals for the Artemis Program is to explore these volatile deposits and return samples to Earth. Volatiles in these reservoirs may consist of a variety of species whose stable isotope characteristics could elucidate both their sources and the processes instrumental in their formation. For example, the delta D of potential contributors to the deposits can be used to identify a uniquely light solar wind component. Because of the exceptionally low temperatures of these volatile deposits, examining and interpreting their stable isotope systems to fulfill Artemis science goals through sampling, preserving, curating, and analyzing these samples are far more difficult than for other sample return missions. Collecting and preserving the samples at cryogenic temperatures dramatically increases science yield but is technologically demanding and poses increased risk during transport.

Despite being essentially water-free, nominally anhydrous minerals such as plagioclase and pyroxene represent the biggest reservoir of water in most lunar rocks due to their sheer abundance. Apatite, which incorporates F, Cl, and OH into its mineral structure as essential crystal components, on the other hand, is the only other volatile-bearing phase common in lunar samples. Here, we present the first coordinated study of volatiles (e.g., H2O, Cl, F, and S) in nominally anhydrous minerals combined with isotopic measurements in apatite from the ancient lunar basalt fragments from meteorite Miller Range (MIL) 13317. Apatite in MIL 13317 basalt contains similar to 2000 ppm H2O and has an elevated SD values (+ 523-737 parts per thousand), similar to Apollo mare basalts, but has high delta Cl-37 values (+ 29-36 parts per thousand), similar to apatite found in several KREEP-rich samples. MIL 13317 is unique compared with other lunar basalts; it has both elevated SD and delta Cl-37 values currently only observed in highlands sample 79215 (a granulitic impactite). Based on measurements of H2O in nominally anhydrous minerals and in apatite, the source magma of MIL 13317 basalt is estimated to contain similar to 130-330 ppm H2O. Assuming reasonable levels of partial melting of the lunar mantle and magmatic degassing during eruption of the basalt, the Moon contained at least one reservoir with < 100 ppm H2O, a delta D value of < 0 parts per thousand similar to carbonaceous chondrites, and extensively fractionated Cl isotopes prior to 4.332 Gyr, the crystallization age of the MIL 13317 basalt.

Small topographic features below the resolution of existing orbital data sets may create micro ultra-cold traps within the larger permanently shadowed regions that are present at the lunar poles. These ultra-cold traps are protected from the major primary and secondary illumination sources, and thus would create surfaces that are much colder than lower-resolution temperature maps would indicate. We examine this effect by creating a high resolution (1 m pix(-1)) terrain map based on upscaled data from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter. This map is illuminated by scattered sunlight and infrared emissions from sunlit terrain, which are then run through a thermal model to determine temperatures. We find that while most of the terrain experiences maximum temperatures around 50 K, there are a number of 1-30 m-scale ultra-cold traps with maximum temperatures as low as 20-30 K. By comparing our modeled ultra-cold trapping area to volatile abundances measured by Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), we reveal a diverse environment where the surficial abundances necessary to explain the LCROSS results are strongly dependent on precisely where the impact occurred.

PROSPECT is a comprehensive payload package developed by the European Space Agency which will support the extraction and analysis of lunar surface and subsurface samples as well as the acquisition of data from additional environmental sensors. The key elements of PROSPECT are the ProSEED drill and the ProSPA analytical laboratory. ProSEED will support the acquisition of cryogenic samples from depths up to 1 m and deliver them to the ProSPA instrument. ProSPA will receive and seal samples in miniaturized ovens, heat them, physically and chemically process the released volatiles, and analyze the obtained constituents via mass spectrometry using two types of spectrometers. Contextual information will be provided by cameras which will generate multi-spectral images of the drill working area and of acquired samples, and via temperature sensors and a permittivity sensor that are integrated in the drill rod. The package is designed for minimizing volatile loss from the sample between acquisition and analysis. Initially developed for a flight on the Russian Luna-27 mission, the payload package design was adapted for a more generic lander accommodation and will be flown on a lunar polar lander mission developed within the NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program. PROSPECT targets science and exploration in lunar areas that might harbor deposits of volatiles, and also supports the demonstration of In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) techniques in the lunar environment. PROSPECT operations are designed to be automated to a significant degree but rely on operator monitoring during critical phases. Here, we report the PROSPECT flight design that will be built, tested, and qualified according to European space technology engineering standards before delivery to the lander provider for spacecraft integration. The package is currently in the hardware manufacturing and integration phase with a target delivery to the NASA-selected CLPS lander provider in 2025.

The lunar south polar region is of specific interest with a much higher probability for finding water ice and volatile resources in the permanently shadowed regions (PSRs). Here, the uneven topography coupled with very low axial inclination of the Moon of similar to 1.5(o) helps in maintaining a perennial temperature below 110 K in relatively broad areas. Along with the possibility of finding water ice and other volatiles that can be used for future explorations, the south polar region is expected to be compositionally diverse being situated inside the South Pole Aitken Basin (SPA). Though several lunar polar missions were planned, none of them have yet experienced and explored the unique polar environment in-situ. Several sites have been identified majorly based on technical feasibility of landing. The polar sites are challenging to land due to the difficult terrain and limited information about its characteristics. In this study, we selected a ridge region connecting two PSRs: de-Gerlache and Shackleton, and evaluated four sites in that ridge and prioritized them based on the expected scientific outcomes and feasibility to access a PSR for volatile detection and quantification. Our detailed analysis of landing sites is based on terrain characteristics, which include slope, illumination, surface roughness, surface temperature, accessibility to nearby PSRs, compositional diversity, and trafficability. Moreover, multiple micro PSRs have been identified in close vicinity of four landing sites that can potentially trap water ice and other volatiles. We find that the site C1 (-136.2 degrees, - 89.406 degrees) situated on the ridge connecting de-Gerlache and Shackleton, and site D (-87.514 degrees, -89 degrees) situated on the rim of de-Gerlache are the most promising sites that can be considered for near future polar exploration missions. These sites provide opportunity of exploration utilizing solar power without compromising on scientific outcomes. Both the sites are found to be in close vicinity of PSR providing opportunities to sample volatiles. The sites C1 and D provide a good alternative to site S (-158.162 degrees, -89.769 degrees) located on Shackleton crater rim, which is considered to be scientifically enriched but technically challenging for landing.

The lunar poles are thought to contain vast ice deposits that could be beneficial to future space exploration efforts. However, it is not well characterized how water ice content affects regolith and dust physical properties. In order to develop suitable technologies that can operate safely in the cryogenic regolith, testing should be conducted in simulated regolith. We present a new production method for lunar permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) icy regolith simulant. We build on an existing lunar highlands simulant, by adapting it for lunar poles, where water ice might be present in PSRs. We have demonstrated a production concept using controllable simulant and water flow rates to make granular icy simulant with variable water ice content. We found that with this production method, icy simulant has a porosity of 0.6 to 0.7, that persists even after dehydration. (c) 2024 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

This review article provides an overview of various aspects of lunar exploration, including missions to the Moon, collection and analysis of lunar sample data in laboratories, and the processing and analysis of remote sensing data, particularly using radar techniques. Both remote sensing and in-situ methods are critical for advancing our understanding of the lunar surface and its properties. This review article focuses on the identification and quantification of water-ice deposits located in areas such as Permanently shadowed areas (PSRs) and the lunar poles ( Lunar Poles and PSRs: A Special Environment). These volatile resources have the potential to serve as valuable sources of fuel for future missions, making it crucial for the lunar community to determine their abundance and distribution. After thoroughly examining lunar samples using high-precision laboratory techniques, many preconceptions were dispelled which is highlighted in the Laboratory Investigation of Lunar samples. But as in-situ observations are difficult to acquire, especially terrestrial bodies samples, remote sensing techniques allow the global understanding of the surface. The article specifically highlights the importance of understanding the electrical characteristics of the lunar surface and how radar inversion can provide valuable information in this regard. The Conclusion of this review article serves as a key takeaway for readers, underscoring the critical role that both in-situ and remote sensing techniques play in advancing our understanding of the Moon. (c) 2023 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.